[6] Accounting policies

Judgments and estimates

The preparation of the IFRS consolidated financial statements requires the use of judgments and estimates for certain line items that affect recognition and measurement in the consolidated statement of financial position and consolidated income statement. The actual amounts realized may differ from estimates. Judgments and estimates are applied in particular:

• in determining the total estimated contract costs in order to evaluate the percentage of completion of contracts and in determining the estimated revenue from variable elements in the project business where the revenue is recognized over a period of time;
• in assessing the need for and the amount of impairment losses on intangible assets, property, plant, and equipment, receivables, and inventories;
• in determining the useful life of non-current assets;
• in classifying and measuring leases and in determining the lease terms;
• in recognizing and measuring defined benefit pension obligations and other provisions;
• in recognizing and measuring current and deferred income taxes; and
• in recognizing and measuring assets acquired and liabilities assumed in connection with business combinations.

The impact of a change to judgments or estimates is recognized prospectively when it becomes known and assumptions are adjusted accordingly.

Revenue recognition

Revenue is the consideration that is expected to be received from the customer for the transfer of goods or services (transaction price). In addition to the contractually agreed consideration, the transaction price may also include variable elements, such as rebates, volume discounts, trade discounts, bonuses, penalties, and changes to the contractually agreed consideration as a result of price adjustment clauses. Variable elements are included in the transaction price only if it is highly unlikely that the revenue that has already been recognized will subsequently be reversed. Payment terms vary in accordance with the customary conditions in the respective countries. Revenue is recognized when control over the promised goods or services passes to the customer. This is the case when the customer can direct how the goods or services are used and substantially obtain the remaining benefits from the goods or services.

Revenue also includes revenue from the lease and short-term rental business after deduction of trade discounts and rebates.

Other criteria may arise, depending on each individual transaction, as described below:

Sale of goods

Revenue from the sale of goods is recognized at the point in time when the contractual performance obligation is satisfied. This is generally the case when the KION Group delivers goods to a customer, the risks and rewards incidental to the ownership of the goods sold are substantially transferred to the customer, and there is a right to receive the contractually agreed consideration. If a customer is expected to accept goods but has yet to do so, the corresponding revenue is recognized only when the goods are accepted. The point in time when the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the goods sold are substantially transferred to the customer is determined by the underlying contract and the delivery terms specified therein or by international trade rules. Shipping services are not usually treated as separate performance obligations.

Rendering of services

Revenue from the rendering of services is recognized upon performance of the service, either at a point in time or over a period of time. Revenue recognized over a period of time is recognized on a straight-line basis over the period of performance or in accordance with the proportion of the overall service rendered by the reporting date.

Lease and short-term rental business

Revenue from the direct lease business is recognized on the commencement date in the amount of the sale value of the leased asset for leases classified as finance leases; for leases classified as operating leases, revenue is recognized on a straight-line basis, generally in the amount of the lease payments.

In the indirect lease business, industrial trucks are sold to vendor partners that enter into long-term leases with end customers. As the vendor partner usually does not obtain control over the industrial truck, subsidiaries in the KION Group initially treat as deferred income the portion of the consideration received that exceeds the amount they expect to have to pay when the industrial truck is returned and subsequently recognize the revenue in installments over the term of the lease. If substantially all of the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the industrial truck are transferred to the vendor partner, the portion of the consideration received that exceeds the amount expected to be paid when the industrial truck is returned is recognized as revenue immediately.

Short-term rental business is generally classified as an operating lease.

Project business contracts

In the project business, customer-specific assets without an alternative use are produced for the customer. Because control over the promised assets gradually passes to the customer over the course of the project, revenue is recognized over a period of time, i.e. the duration of the project, in line with the percentage of completion. The percentage of completion is the proportion of contract costs incurred up to the reporting date compared to the total estimated contract costs as at the reporting date (cost-to-cost method) and reflects the continuous transfer of control over the project to the customer. The KION Group has a legal right to payment for performance completed to date, plus a reasonable margin.

Contract costs are recognized as an expense in the period in which they are incurred. The total estimated contract costs are reviewed on an ongoing basis throughout the project and, in the event of changes to the estimates, are adjusted accordingly. This means that the percentage of completion calculated as at the reporting date, the revenue to be recognized, and the project’s profit or loss may change.

Contract modifications and claims against customers are factored into the project costing provided that the parties to the contract have agreed to them and they do not give rise to any distinct performance obligation. If the calculated percentage of completion as at the reporting date changes as a result, the difference between the revenue already recognized up to that point and the revenue calculated on the basis of the new estimate of the percentage of completion is recognized in profit or loss.

During the project, invoices are issued to the customer when contractually agreed milestones are reached. If the revenue recognized exceeds the invoiced performance, the excess is recognized as a contract asset. If the payments received from the customer exceed the revenue recognized, the excess is recognized as a contract liability.

Cost of sales

The cost of sales comprises the cost of goods sold and services rendered, costs arising from project business contracts, and revenue-related costs from the lease and short-term rental business. As well as direct costs, these also include relevant overheads.

The main components of the cost of sales are cost of materials, personnel expenses, depreciation expenses on property, plant, and equipment and amortization expenses on intangible assets in connection with purchase price allocations, and amortization expenses on capitalized development costs. This item also includes warranty costs.

Financial income and expenses

The interest income and expense included in net financial income/expenses are recognized in profit and loss in accordance with the effective interest method.

Goodwill

Goodwill has an indefinite useful life and is therefore not amortized. Instead, it is tested for impairment in accordance with IAS 36 at least once a year or on an ad hoc basis if there are indications that the asset might be impaired.

Goodwill is tested for impairment annually at the level of the cash-generating units (CGUs) to which goodwill is allocated.

The CGUs or groups of CGUs identified for the purposes of testing goodwill and brand names for impairment equate to the KION ITS EMEA, KION ITS APAC, and KION ITS Americas Operating Units in the Industrial Trucks & Services segment and to the KION SCS Operating Unit in the Supply Chain Solutions segment.

The recoverable amount of a CGU is determined by calculating its value in use on the basis of the discounted cash flow method. The cash flows forecast for the next five years are included in the calculation for the impairment test. The financial forecasts are based on assumptions relating to the development of the global economy, the sectoral environment, the procurement markets, and exchange rates. Cash flows beyond the five-year planning horizon were extrapolated for the KION ITS EMEA, KION ITS APAC, and KION ITS Americas CGUs / groups of CGUs using a long-term growth rate that was unchanged at 1.0 percent (2021: 1.0 percent). The long-term growth rate used for KION SCS was unchanged at 1.3 percent (2021: 1.3 percent).

The financial forecasts are also based on assumptions about the effects of climate change and the influence of other sustainability-related aspects on the KION Group’s business performance. These assumptions relate, for example, to changes in demand from customers, regulatory requirements, and changes in production conditions. Overall, the climate-related risks faced by the KION Group in this regard, e.g. due to the need to fulfill regulatory requirements aimed at supporting a circular economy and limiting climate change, had no material impact on the calculation of the recoverable amounts for the CGUs / groups of CGUs. Thanks to its business model, market position, technological position, and product portfolio, the KION Group believes that it is already well placed to meet the higher standards of sustainability that are expected of material handling solutions.

CGU cash flows are discounted using a weighted average cost of capital (WACC) that reflects current market assessments of the specific risks to individual CGUs.

The following table shows the significant parameters for impairment testing broken down by Operating Unit. Any material changes to these and other factors might result in the recognition of impairment losses. Further information on goodwill can be found in note [16].

The impairment test carried out in the fourth quarter of 2022 did not reveal any need to recognize impairment losses for the goodwill allocated to the KION ITS EMEA, KION ITS APAC, KION ITS Americas, and KION SCS CGUs / groups of CGUs. Using sensitivity analysis, it was also verified that no impairment losses needed to be recognized for goodwill, even if key parameters vary within realistic limits, in particular variations in WACC after taxes of – / + 100 basis points or variations in the long-term growth rates of – / + 25 basis points.

Other intangible assets

Other purchased intangible assets with a finite useful life are carried at historical cost less all accumulated amortization and accumulated impairment losses. If events or market developments suggest impairment has occurred, impairment tests are carried out on the carrying amount of items classified as other intangible assets with a finite useful life. The carrying amount of an asset is compared with its recoverable amount. If the reasons for recognizing impairment losses in prior periods no longer apply, the relevant impairment losses are reversed, but subject to a limit such that the carrying amount of the asset is no higher than its amortized cost.

Development costs are capitalized if the capitalization criteria in IAS 38 are met. Capitalized development costs include all costs and overheads directly attributable to the development process. Once they have been initially capitalized, these costs and other internally generated intangible assets – particularly internally generated software – are carried at cost less accumulated amortization and accumulated impairment losses. All non-qualifying development costs are expensed as incurred and immediately reported in the consolidated income statement under research and development costs together with research costs.

Amortization of intangible assets with a finite useful life is recognized on a straight-line basis and predominantly reported under cost of sales. The impairment losses on intangible assets are reported under other expenses.

The following ranges of useful lives are applied in determining the carrying amounts of items of property, plant, and equipment:

Other intangible assets with an indefinite useful life are carried at cost and currently comprise only brand names. Brand names are not amortized because they have been established in the market for a number of years and there is no foreseeable end to their useful life. In accordance with IAS 36, they are tested for impairment at least once a year or on an ad hoc basis if there are indications that the asset might be impaired.

The impairment test applies an income-oriented method in which fundamentally the same assumptions are used as in the impairment test for goodwill, and it did not reveal any need to recognize impairment losses. Assessments of indefinite useful life are carried out at every reporting date.

Lease and short-term rental business

The Industrial Trucks & Services segment conducts lease and short-term rental business in which it leases or rents industrial trucks and related items of equipment to its customers in order to promote sales.

Subsidiaries of the KION Group enter into leases as lessors and as lessees. Where they act as lessors, the leases are classified as finance leases, in accordance with IFRS 16, if substantially all of the risks and rewards incidental to ownership of the leased asset are transferred to the lessee. All other leases and short-term rentals are classified as operating leases, again in accordance with IFRS 16, and recognized as leased assets or rental assets.

If a KION Group subsidiary enters into a finance lease as the lessor, the future lease payments to be made by the customer are recognized as lease receivables at an amount equal to the net investment in the lease. These are measured using the simplified impairment approach in accordance with IFRS 9. Interest income is spread over the term of the lease in order to ensure a constant return on the outstanding net investment in the lease.

The classification of leases requires estimates to be made regarding the transferred and retained risks and rewards in connection with ownership of the industrial truck. When defining the lease term, all facts and circumstances that offer an economic incentive to exercise extension options, or to not exercise cancellation options, are also taken into consideration. Further information on the lease and short-term rental business can be found in notes [17] Leased assets, [18] Rental assets, and [21] Lease receivables.

Lease business

If the beneficial ownership of leased assets remains with a KION Group subsidiary as the lessor under an operating lease, the assets are reported as leased assets in the statement of financial position. The leased assets are carried at cost and depreciated on a straight-line basis over the term of the underlying leases until the residual value is reached. To finance leases, industrial trucks are sold to leasing companies (financing partners), for example, and immediately leased back (head lease) before being sub-leased to external end customers (described below as ‘sale and leaseback sub-leases’). The KION Group also finances its lease business by means of lease facilities and securitizations. Lease facilities are credit facilities for the specific purpose of financing the lease business and are contractually defined as such.

The following applies to leases entered into from January 1, 2018 onward: The financing partner usually does not obtain control over the industrial truck and it is recognized as a leased asset in the statement of financial position or, if the risks and rewards have been transferred to the end customer, as a lease receivable. The industrial truck recognized as a leased asset is carried at cost, while the lease receivable is recognized at an amount equal to the net investment in the lease. In both cases, the liabilities for financing are recognized under liabilities from lease business.

In accordance with the transitional provisions of IFRS 16, the rest of the sale and leaseback sub-lease portfolio – comprising leases entered into up to December 31, 2017 – was not reassessed with regard to the transfer of control to the financing partner in the head lease. In sale and leaseback sub-leases, risks and rewards incidental to the head lease are, in general, substantially borne by the KION Group subsidiaries. The corresponding assets are therefore reported as leased assets within non-current assets and measured at amortized cost. However, if risks and rewards incidental to the head lease are substantially transferred to the end customer in the sub-lease, a corresponding lease receivable is recognized. In both cases, the funding items for these long-term customer leases, which are funded for terms that match those of the leases, are also recognized as liabilities from lease business.

In the indirect lease business, industrial trucks are sold to leasing companies (vendor partners) that enter into long-term leases with end customers. As the vendor partner usually does not obtain control over the industrial truck, it is recognized as a leased asset in the KION Group’s consolidated statement of financial position and carried at cost. In the period before the industrial truck is returned, it is depreciated on a straight-line basis until the amount expected to be paid upon return is reached. The KION Group recognizes an obligation equivalent to the amount that it expects to have to pay when the industrial truck is returned (repurchase obligation) under liabilities from lease business. In addition, the consideration received that exceeds the amount that is expected to be paid when the industrial truck is returned is initially treated as deferred income and the revenue is subsequently recognized in installments over the term of the lease.

Short-term rental business

Subsidiaries in the KION Group rent industrial trucks directly to end customers under short-term rental agreements. Short-term rental agreements usually have a term ranging from a few hours to a year.

To finance the short-term rental business, industrial trucks are sold to leasing companies (financing partners), for example, and immediately leased back (head lease) before being sub-leased to external end customers. The KION Group also finances its short-term rental business by means of rental facilities. Rental facilities are credit facilities for the specific purpose of financing the short-term rental business and are contractually defined as such.

The following applies to short-term rental agreements entered into from January 1, 2018 onward: The financing partner usually does not obtain control over the industrial truck and it is recognized as a rental asset in the consolidated statement of financial position. It is carried at cost and usually depreciated on a straight-line basis over the normal useful life of between five and eight years, depending on the product group. The liabilities for financing this part of the short-term rental fleet are reported under liabilities from short-term rental business.

In accordance with the transitional provisions of IFRS 16, the rest of the sale and leaseback sub-lease portfolio – comprising leases entered into up to December 31, 2017 – was not reassessed with regard to the transfer of control to the financing partner in the head lease. In the case of sale and leaseback sub-lease transactions, risks and rewards incidental to the head lease are usually substantially borne by subsidiaries in the KION Group, so the industrial trucks are reported as rental assets and measured at amortized cost. The liabilities for financing this part of the short-term rental fleet are also reported under liabilities from short-term rental business.

Other property, plant, and equipment

Property, plant, and equipment is carried at cost less depreciation and impairment losses. The cost of internally generated machinery and equipment includes all costs directly attributable to the production process and an appropriate portion of production overheads.

Depreciation of property, plant, and equipment is recognized on a straight-line basis and reported under functional costs. The useful lives and depreciation methods are reviewed annually and adjusted to reflect changes in conditions.

The following ranges of useful lives are applied in determining the carrying amounts of items of property, plant, and equipment:

KION Group companies also lease property, plant, and equipment for their own use through procurement leases, which are recognized as right-of-use assets under other property, plant, and equipment. As a rule, the leases are entered into for defined periods, although they may contain extension and/or termination options. For this reason, when defining the lease term, senior management takes into consideration all facts and circumstances that offer an economic incentive to exercise extension options or to not exercise cancellation options.

The right-of-use assets are depreciated over the shorter of their useful life or the term of the lease, unless title to the leased assets passes to the lessee when the lease expires, in which case the right-of-use asset is depreciated over the useful life of the leased asset.

When liabilities from procurement leases are initially measured, the lease payments not yet made are discounted at an interest rate implicit in the lease. If this cannot be readily defined, a term-specific and currency-specific incremental borrowing rate of interest is essentially determined and used for the calculation.

Lease installments for procurement leases with a term of no more than twelve months and for procurement leases relating to low-value assets are immediately recognized as an expense under functional costs.

If there are certain indications of impairment of the property, plant, and equipment, the assets are tested for impairment by comparing the residual carrying amount of the assets with their recoverable amount. If the residual carrying amount is greater than the recoverable amount, an impairment loss is recognized for an asset. The impairment losses on property, plant, and equipment are reported under other expenses.

If an impairment test for an item of property, plant, and equipment is performed at the level of a cash-generating unit to which goodwill is allocated and results in the recognition of an impairment loss, first the goodwill and, subsequently, the assets must be written down in proportion to their relative carrying amounts. If the reason for an impairment loss recognized in prior years no longer applies, the relevant pro rata impairment losses are reversed, but subject to a limit such that the carrying amount of the asset is no higher than its amortized cost. This does not apply to goodwill.

Equity-accounted investments

In accordance with the equity method, associates and joint ventures are measured as the proportion of the interest in the equity of the investee. They are initially carried at cost. Subsequently, the carrying amount of the equity investment is adjusted in line with any changes to the KION Group’s interest in the net assets of the investee. The KION Group’s interest in the profit or loss generated after acquisition is recognized in income. Other changes in the equity of associates and joint ventures are recognized in other comprehensive income in the consolidated financial statements in proportion to the Group’s interest in the associate or joint venture.

If the Group’s interest in the losses incurred by an associate or joint venture exceeds the carrying amount of the proportionate equity attributable to the Group, no additional losses are recognized. Any goodwill arising from the acquisition of an associate or joint venture is included in the carrying amount of the investment in the associate or joint venture.

If there is evidence that an associate or joint venture may be impaired, the carrying amount of the equity investment in question is tested for impairment. The carrying amount of the asset is compared with its recoverable amount. If the carrying amount is greater than the recoverable amount, an impairment loss is recognized for the equity investment. If the reasons for the recognition of the impairment loss on the equity investment no longer apply, the impairment loss is reversed.

Financial instruments

Financial assets

In accordance with IFRS 9, the KION Group categorizes financial assets as debt instruments measured at amortized cost (AC category), debt instruments recognized at fair value through profit or loss (FVPL category), or equity instruments recognized at fair value through other comprehensive income (FVOCI category). The assignment to the various categories can be found in note [40].

Debt instruments are measured at amortized cost if they are held as part of a business model whose objective is to collect the contractual cash flows, and these cash flows consist solely of payments of principal and interest on the principal amount outstanding.

Upon initial recognition, financial assets in the AC category are carried at fair value including directly attributable transaction costs. In subsequent periods they are measured at amortized cost using the effective interest method. Low-interest or non-interest-bearing receivables due in more than one year are carried at their present value.

In line with the general impairment approach for debt instruments in the AC category, the KION Group recognizes the expected credit loss in profit or loss by recognizing valuation allowances, both upon initial recognition and subsequently. These valuation allowances amount to the twelve-month expected losses, provided no significant increase in credit risk (for example as a result of material changes to external or internal credit ratings) is observable at the reporting date. Otherwise, the lifetime expected loss is recognized. The expected loss is calculated using the probability of default, the amount at risk, and, taking into account any collateral, the estimated loss given default. The calculation draws on observable historical loss data, information on current conditions, and the economic outlook. A default is defined as the occurrence of a loss event, such as a borrower being in considerable financial difficulties or a contract being breached. A financial asset is impaired if there are no reasonable prospects of recovering the underlying cash flows in full or partly. The recoverability is assessed on the basis of different indicators – for example, failure to adhere to payment terms or the opening of insolvency proceedings over the borrower’s assets – that take the relevant country-specific factors into account. The reversal of an impairment loss must not result in a carrying amount greater than the amortized cost that would have arisen if the impairment loss had not been recognized.

Upon measurement of trade receivables, lease receivables, and contract assets subsequent to initial recognition, the KION Group applies the simplified impairment approach of IFRS 9. For purposes of the valuation allowance, average loss rates on a collective basis are used to determine the expected lifetime losses. In the case of trade receivables, this depends on the past due status of the receivable. The loss rates are calculated on the basis of observable historical loss data, taking into account current conditions and economic assessments, for example on the basis of expected probability of default for significant countries. The amount of the valuation allowances already recognized is adjusted through profit or loss if there is a change in the estimate for the underlying inputs.

Financial assets assigned to the FVPL category are initially recognized at fair value; directly attributable transaction costs have to be taken directly to profit or loss. In subsequent periods, financial assets in the FVPL category are recognized at fair value through profit or loss.

The KION Group uses factoring programs as a way of managing working capital. In these programs, the underlying receivables are sold to the factor in return for payment. Because default risk and the other material risks and opportunities are passed to the factor, the receivables are derecognized in full when payment is received from the factor. The KION Group has assigned the portfolio of receivables under the factoring programs that are still recognized in its statement of financial position to the ‘sell’ business model in accordance with IFRS 9, which means that the receivables continue to be recognized at fair value through profit or loss until they are derecognized.

Equity instruments in the FVOCI category are recognized at fair value through other comprehensive income. Upon initial recognition at fair value, directly attributable transaction costs are included. Gains and losses recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income are not reclassified to profit or loss upon derecognition of these financial assets but instead remain in equity.

Financial liabilities

In accordance with IFRS 9, the KION Group differentiates between financial liabilities that are not held for trading and are thus recognized at amortized cost using the effective interest method (AC category) and financial liabilities that are held for trading and recognized at fair value through profit or loss (FVPL category). The assignment to the various categories can be found in note [40].

Upon initial recognition, financial liabilities in the AC category are carried at fair value, including any directly attributable transaction costs. Low-interest or non-interest-bearing liabilities due in more than one year are carried at their present value. Subsequently, financial liabilities are recognized at amortized cost using the effective interest method.

Financial liabilities assigned to the FVPL category are initially recognized at fair value; directly attributable transaction costs have to be taken directly to profit or loss. In subsequent periods, financial liabilities in the FVPL category are recognized at fair value through profit or loss.

Hedge accounting

Derivative financial instruments that are part of a formally documented hedge with a hedged item are not assigned to any of the IFRS 9 measurement categories and are therefore recognized in accordance with the hedge accounting rules described below.

In the case of cash flow hedges for hedging currency risk, derivatives are used to hedge future cash flow risks from highly probable future transactions and firm commitments not reported in the statement of financial position. The effective portion of changes in the fair value of derivatives is initially recognized in equity in the hedge reserve (accumulated other comprehensive income). The amounts previously recognized in the hedge reserve are subsequently reclassified to the income statement when the gain or loss on the corresponding hedged item is recognized. The ineffective portion of the changes in fair value is recognized immediately in the income statement.

In addition, the KION Group uses an interest-rate swap to hedge the fair value of a fixed-rate financial liability.

The critical-terms-match method is used to measure the prospective effectiveness of the hedges. Ineffective portions can arise if the critical terms of the hedged item and hedge no longer match; this is determined using the dollar-offset method.

In addition, the KION Group uses amortizing interest-rate swaps to hedge the fair value of certain lease receivables at portfolio level in accordance with IAS 39. The effective portion of changes in the fair value of the interest-rate swaps is recognized in net financial income/expenses. These are offset by gains and losses on the change in the fair value of the hedged lease receivables, which result in an adjustment in profit or loss of the carrying amount of the hedged item in net financial income/expenses. The ineffective portion of the hedge is also recognized in net financial income/expenses.

The prospective and retrospective effectiveness of hedges is measured using a regression analysis with historical data. Ineffectiveness may arise in the hedged item in the event of default.

Income taxes

In the consolidated financial statements, current and deferred taxes are recognized on the basis of the tax legislation of the jurisdictions involved. Deferred taxes are recognized in other comprehensive income if they relate to transactions also recognized in other comprehensive income.

Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized in accordance with the liability method for all temporary differences between the IFRS carrying amounts and the tax base, as well as for temporary consolidation measures.

Deferred tax assets also include tax refund claims that arise in subsequent years from the expected utilization of existing tax loss carryforwards and interest carryforwards and from tax credits and whose utilization is reasonably certain according to current forecasts.

Deferred taxes are determined on the basis of the tax rates that will apply at the recovery date, or have been announced, in accordance with the current legal situation in each country concerned. Deferred tax assets are offset against deferred tax liabilities to the extent that they relate to the same taxation authority and there is an intention to settle them on a net basis.

Significant estimates are involved in calculating income taxes. These estimates may change on the basis of new information and experience (see also note [14]). Deferred tax assets on tax loss carryforwards and interest carryforwards are recognized on the basis of an estimate of the future recoverability of the tax benefit, i.e. an assumption as to whether sufficient taxable income or tax relief will be available against which the carryforwards can be utilized. The actual amount of taxable income in future periods – and hence the actual utilization of tax loss carryforwards and interest carryforwards – may be different from the estimates made when the corresponding deferred tax assets were recognized.

Inventories

Inventories are carried at the lower of cost and net realizable value. The acquisition costs of raw materials and merchandise are calculated using the weighted average cost method. The cost of finished goods and work in progress includes direct costs and an appropriate portion of the material and production overheads and production-related depreciation directly attributable to the production process. Administrative costs and social insurance/employee benefits are included to the extent that they are attributable to the production process. The amount recognized is an average value or a value determined in accordance with the FIFO method (FIFO = first in first out).

Net realizable value is the selling price that can be realized less the estimated costs of completion and the estimated necessary selling costs.

Impairment losses are recognized for inventory risks resulting from duration of storage, impaired recoverability, or other reasons. If the reasons for the recognition of the impairment losses on the inventories no longer apply, they are reversed, but subject to a limit such that the carrying amount of the asset is no higher than its cost.

Contract balances

Contract assets mainly relate to goods and services provided in the project business that have not yet been billed. Contract assets are measured using the simplified impairment approach in accordance with IFRS 9. The average loss rates calculated for trade receivables are used as an approximation of the expected losses from contract assets.

A contract liability is a company’s obligation to transfer goods or services to a customer for which the company has received consideration. Project business contracts with a net debit balance due to customers are reported under contract liabilities, as are advances received from customers. Contract liabilities are recognized as revenue as soon as the contractual goods and services have been provided. Further information on contract balances can be found in note [34].

Assets held for sale

Non-current assets or disposal groups are classified as held for sale if their carrying amount will be recovered principally through a sale transaction rather than through continuing use. For such classification, the assets or disposal groups must be available for immediate sale in their present condition and their sale must be highly probable.

Such assets or disposal groups are measured at the lower of their net carrying amount and fair value less costs of disposal. Amortization on intangible assets and depreciation on property, plant, and equipment cease to be recognized as soon as the assets are classified as held for sale.

Retirement benefit obligation and similar obligations

The retirement benefit obligation and similar obligations are calculated in accordance with the projected unit credit method, taking account of future increases in remuneration and pensions. Pension provisions are reduced by the fair value of the plan assets used to cover the Group’s benefit obligations, taking account – if applicable – of the rules on limiting the surplus of plan assets over the obligation (asset ceiling).

Remeasurements and changes in the effect of the asset ceiling are recognized in other comprehensive income, factoring in deferred taxes. The service cost and the net interest cost of defined benefit plans are recognized in profit or loss.

Defined benefit pension entitlements are calculated on the basis of actuarial parameters, although the fair value for certain plan assets is derived from inputs that are not observable in the market. Further information on sensitivity analysis in relation to the impact of the discount rate and details of measurement can be found in the information on the retirement benefit obligation and similar obligations in note [29].

Liabilities from lease business

In accordance with IFRS 9, liabilities from the lease business are recognized at amortized cost using the effective interest method (AC category). Upon initial recognition, they are carried at fair value, including any relevant directly attributable transaction costs. Liabilities from the lease business resulting from financing transactions entered into up to December 31, 2017 are recognized in accordance with the transitional provisions of IFRS 16 and are therefore not assigned to any of the IFRS 9 measurement categories.

Liabilities from the lease business comprise all liabilities from financing the direct lease business and the repurchase obligations resulting from the indirect lease business.

Liabilities from short-term rental business

In accordance with IFRS 9, liabilities from the short-term rental business are recognized at amortized cost using the effective interest method (AC category). Upon initial recognition, they are carried at fair value, including any relevant directly attributable transaction costs. Liabilities from the short-term rental business resulting from financing transactions entered into up to December 31, 2017 are recognized in accordance with the transitional provisions of IFRS 16 and are therefore not assigned to any of the IFRS 9 measurement categories.

Other provisions

In accordance with IAS 37, other provisions are recognized when the Group has a legal or constructive obligation to a third party as the result of a past event that is likely to lead to a future outflow of resources and that can be reliably estimated. Where there is a range of possible outcomes and each individual point within the range has an equal probability of occurring, the provision is recognized in the amount of the mean of the individual points. Measurement is at full cost. Provisions for identifiable risks and uncertain liabilities are recognized in the amount that represents the best estimate of the cost required to settle the obligations. The settlement amount also includes cost increases identifiable as at the reporting date. Provisions with a maturity of more than twelve months are discounted using the standard market interest rate. The discount rate is a before-tax interest rate that reflects current market expectations for the time value of money and the specific risks inherent in the liability.

Provisions for statutory and contractual warranties and for goodwill cases are recognized on the basis of past or estimated future claim statistics and for known individual claims. In the case of product sales, the corresponding expense is recognized in cost of sales at the date on which the revenue is recognized. In the project business, the corresponding expense is recognized in cost of sales upon acceptance by the customer.

Provisions for onerous contracts and other business obligations are measured on the basis of the contractual obligations that are currently still to be fulfilled. In the case of contracts in the project business, a provision for onerous contracts is recognized if the total contract costs exceed the contract revenue. The expected loss is immediately recognized as an expense in the period in which the loss becomes apparent.

A restructuring provision is recognized when a KION Group subsidiary has prepared a detailed, formal restructuring plan and this plan has raised the valid expectation in those affected that the subsidiary will carry out the restructuring by starting to implement that plan or announcing its main features to those affected by it. The measurement of a restructuring provision only includes the direct expenditures arising from the restructuring and not associated with the ongoing activities of the entity concerned.

The recognition and measurement of other provisions are based on an estimate of the probability of the future outflow of resources, supplemented by past experience and the circumstances known to the Group at the reporting date. Accordingly, the actual outflow of resources for a given event may be different from the amount of the provision recognized. Further details can be found in note [33].

Share-based payments

IFRS 2 distinguishes between equity-settled and cash-settled share-based payment transactions.

Equity-settled share-based payment transactions are recognized at their fair value at the date of grant. The fair value of the obligation is recognized as an expense under functional costs over the vesting period and added to capital reserves.

The portion of the fair value of cash-settled share-based payments that is attributable to service provided up to the valuation date is recognized as an expense under functional costs and is also reported as a liability. The fair value is recalculated on each reporting date until the end of the performance period. Any change in the fair value of the obligation must be recognized (pro rata) under expenses.